ray and the normal to a reflecting surface.
attenuation:‑ The reduction of average
optical power
in an optical waveguide, expressed in decibels. The main
causes are scattering and absorption, as well as optical
losses in connectors and splices. Attenuation α or loss is
expressed by:
α(dB) = -10 log10 (Po/Pi)
where Pi is the optical power measured at the input and Po
the optical power measured at the output. Since Po is less
than Pi, a negative sign is placed before the 10 to
yield a
positive number for α.
attenuator:‑ An optical element that
reduces
intensity
of a optical signal passing through it (i.e., attenuates
it). Example: Manufactures make attenuators built into
connectors which incorporate a sleeve consisting of a
carbon‑coated mylar filter. They come in steps of 6 dB,
12 dB,16 dB, and 22 dB values.
avalanche photodiode (APD):‑ A photodiode
designed
to
take advantage of avalanche multiplication of photocurrent.
As
the reverse‑bias voltage approaches the break‑down
voltage, hole‑electron pairs created by absorbed photons
acquire
sufficient energy to create additional hole‑electron
pairs when they collide with ions; thus a multiplication or signal
gain is achieved.
axial ray:‑ A light ray that travels along
the axis
of an
optical fiber.
backscattering:‑ A small fraction of light
that is deflected
out of the original direction of propagation by scattering
suffers a reversal of direction. In other words, it propagates
in the optical waveguide towards the transmitter.
bandwidth:‑ The lowest frequency at which
the
magnitude of
the waveguide transfer function decreases to 3 dB (optical
power) below its zero frequency value. The bandwidth will
be a function of length of the waveguide, but may not be
directly proportional to the length.
beamsplitter:‑ A device used to divide or
split an
optical
beam into two or more separate beams.
beamwidth:‑ The distance between two
diametrically
opposed
points at which the irradiance is a specified fraction of the
beam's peak irradiance; most often applied to beams that
are circular in cross‑section.
ber (Bit Error Rate):‑ In digital
applications, the
ratio of
bits received in error to bits sent. BERs of one errored bit
per billion (1x10-9) sent are typical.
buffer:‑ Material used to protect optical
fiber from
physical
damage, providing mechanical isolation and/or protection.
Fabrication techniques include tight or loose tube
buffering,
as well as multiple buffer layers.
Burrus LED:‑ A surface‑emitting LED with a
hole
etched to
accommodate a light‑collecting fiber. Named after its inventor,
Charles A. Burrus of Bell Labs.
chromatic dispersion:‑ Spreading of a light
pulse
caused
by the difference in refractive indices at different wavelengths.
cladding:‑ The dielectric material
surrounding the
core of
an optical fiber.
coherent:‑ Light source (laser) in which
the
amplitude of
all waves is exactly equivalent, and rise and fall together.
core:‑ The central region of an optical
fiber through
which
light is transmitted.
coupler:‑ An optical component used to
split or
combine
optical signals. Also known as a
"Splitter","T‑coupler",
"2x2" or "1x2" coupler.
critical angle:‑ The smallest angle from
the fiber
axis at
which a ray may be totally reflected at the core/cladding
interface.
cutoff wavelength:‑ The shortest
wavelength at which
only the
fundamental mode of an optical waveguide is capable of
propagation.
dark current:‑ The external current that,
under
specified
biasing conditions, flows in a photodetector when there is
no incident radiation.
data rate:‑ The maximum number of bits of
information
which
can be transmitted per second, as in a data transmission
link. Typically expressed as megabits per second (Mb/s).
decibel (dB):‑ The standard unit of level
used to
express
gain or loss of optical or electrical power.
detector:‑ A transducer that provides an
electrical
output
signal in response to an incident optical signal. The current
is dependent on the amount of light received and the type
of device.
dispersion:‑ Spread of the signal delay in
an optical
wave‑
guide. It consists of various components: modal dispersion,
material dispersion, and waveguide dispersion. As a result
of its dispersion, an optical waveguide acts as a low‑pass
filter for the transmitted signals.
ferrule:‑ A component of a fiber optic
connection/connector
that holds a fiber in place and aids in its alignment.
fiber optic:‑ Any filament or fiber, made
of
dielectric
materials, that guides light.
fiber optic link:‑ A fiber optic cable with
connectors
attached to a transmitter (source) and receiver (detector).
fresnel reflection:‑ The reflection of a
portion of
the light
incident on a planar surface between two homogeneous
media having different refractive indices. Fresnel reflection
occurs at the air/glass interfaces at entrance and exit ends
of an optical fiber.
fundamental mode:‑ The lowest order mode of a waveguide.
fiber data distributed interface (FDDI):‑ An
emerging
standard developed by AT&T, Hewlett‑Packard Co, and
Siemens
Corp.,using a 100 Mbps token‑ring network that employs dual
optical fibers. Critical portions of the specification have not
yet been defined.
graded index fiber:‑ An optical fiber with
a variable
refractive index that is a function of the radial distance
from the fiber axis.
incoherent:‑ Light source (LED) emits
incoherent
light as
opposed to the laser which emits coherent light. (See
coherent).
index matching material:‑ A material, often
a liquid
or
cement whose refractive index is nearly equal to the core
index, used to reduce Fresnel reflections from a fiber end
face.
index of refraction (IOR):‑ Refractive
index.
injection laser diode (ILD):‑ Laser diode.
insertion loss:‑ The attenuation caused by
the
insertion of
an optical component; in other words, a connector or coupler
in an optical transmission system.
intensity:‑ Irradiance
intermodal distortion:‑ Multimode distortion.
integrated optical components (IOCs):‑
Optical
devices
(singly or in combinations) that use light transmission
in waveguides. The waveguides structure and confine the
propagating light to a region with one or two very small
dimensions of the order of the wavelength of light. A
common material used in the fabrication process of an IOC
is Lithium Niobate (LiNbO ).
laser diode (LD):‑ Semiconductor diode
which emits
coherent
light above a threshold current.
launch angle:‑ Angle between the
propagation
direction of the
incident light and the optical axis of an optical waveguide.
launching fiber:‑ A fiber used in
conjunction with a
source
to excite the modes of another fiber in a particular way.
Launching fibers are most often used in test systems to
improve the precision of measurements.
light emitting diode (LED):‑ A
semiconductor device
which
emits incoherent light from a p‑n junction when biased with
an electrical current in the forward direction. Light may exit
from the junction strip edge or from its surface, depending
on the device's structure.
light:‑ In the laser and optical
communication
fields, the
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be handled
by the basic optical techniques used for the visible spectrum
extending from the near ultraviolet region of approximately
0.3 micron, through the visible region and into the mid-infrared
region of about 30 microns.
lightwaves:‑ Electromagnetic waves in the
region of
optical
frequencies. The term "light" was originally
restricted to
radiation visible to the human eye, with wavelengths between
400 and 700 nanometers (nm). However, it has become
customary to refer to radiation in the spectral regions adjacent
to visible light (in the near infrared from 700 to about
2000 nm) as "light" to emphasize the physical and
technical
characteristics they have in common with visible light.
macrobending:‑ Macroscopic axial deviations
of a
fiber from
a straight line, in contrast to microbending.
microbending:‑ Curvatures of the fiber
which involve
axial
displacements of a few micrometers and spatial wavelengths
of a few millimeters. Microbends cause loss of light and
consequently increase the attenuation of the fiber.
micron:‑ Micrometer (μm). One millionth of
a meter
(1x10-6 m).
modal dispersion:‑ Pulse spreading due to
multiple
light rays
traveling different distances and speeds through an optical fiber.
modal noise:‑ Disturbance in multimode
fibers fed by
laser
diodes. It occurs when the fibers contain elements with mode
dependent attenuation, such as imperfect splices, and is
more
severe the better the coherence of the laser light.
mode :- A ray or beam of
light.
waveguides. They are eigenvalue solutions to the differential
equations which characterize the waveguide. In a single mode
fiber, only one mode, the fundamental mode, can propagate.
There are several hundred modes in a multimode fiber which
differ in field pattern and propagation
velocity.
The upper limit to the number of modes is determined by the
core diameter and the numerical aperture of the waveguide.
modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD)
technique:‑
A process in which deposits are produced by heterogeneous gas/
solid and gas/liquid chemical reactions at the surface of a
substrate. The MCVD method is often used in fabricating optical
waveguide preforms by causing gaseous material to react
and deposit glass oxides. Typical starting chemicals include
volatile compounds of silicon, germanium, phosphorus, and
boron, which form corresponding oxides after heating with
oxygen or other gases. Depending on its type, the preform may
be processed further in preparation for pulling into an optical fiber.
monochromatic:‑ Consisting of a single
wavelength. In
practice, radiation is never perfectly monochromatic but,
at best, displays a narrow band of wavelengths.
multimode distortion:‑ The signal
distortion in an
optical
waveguide resulting from the superposition of modes with
differing delays.
multimode fiber:‑ Optical waveguide whose
core
diameter is
large compared with the optical wavelength and in which,
consequently, a large number of modes are capable of
propagation.
noise equivalent power (NEP):‑ The RMS
value of
optical
power which is required to produce an RMS signal‑to‑noise
ratio of 1; and indication of noise level which defines the
minimum detectable signal level.
numerical aperture:‑ A measure of the range
of angles
of
incident light transmitted through a fiber. Depends on the
differences in index of refraction between the core and the
cladding.
optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR):‑
A method
for
characterizing a fiber wherein an optical pulse is transmitted
through the fiber and the resulting backscatter and reflections
to the input are measured as a function of time.
Useful in estimating attenuation coefficient as a function of
distance and identifying defects and other localized losses.
optoelectronic:‑ Any device that functions
as an
electrical-
to‑optical or optical‑to‑electrical transducer.
optoelectronic integrated circuits (OEICs):‑ Combine
electronic and optic functions in a single chip.
peak wavelength:‑ The wavelength at which
the optical
power of a source is at a maximum.
photocurrent:‑ The current that flows
through a
photosensitive
device, such as a photodiode, as the result of exposure to
radiant power.
photodiode:‑ A diode designed to produce
photocurrent
by
absorbing light. Photodiodes are used for the detection of
optical power and for the conversion of optical power into
electrical power.
photon:‑ A quantum of electromagnetic
energy.
pigtail:‑ A short length of optical fiber
for
coupling optical
components. It is usually permanently fixed to the components.
pin-fet receiver:‑ Optical receiver with a
PIN
photodiode and
low noise amplifier with a high impedance input, whose first
stage incorporates a Field‑Effect Transistor (FET).
PIN Photodiode:‑ A diode with a large
intrinsic
region sand‑
wiched between p‑doped and n‑doped semiconducting regions.
Photons in this region create electron hole pairs that are
separated by an electric field thus generating an electric
current in the load circuit.
preform:‑ A glass structure from which an
optical
fiber
waveguide may be drawn.
primary coating:‑ The plastic coating
applied
directly to
the cladding surface of the fiber during manufacture to
preserve the integrity of the surface.
ray:‑ A geometric representation of a light
path
through an
optical medium; a line normal to the wave front indicating
the direction of radiant energy flow.
Rayleigh Scattering:‑ Scattering by
refractive index
fluctuations (inhomogeneities in material density or
composition) that are small with respect to wavelength.
receiver:‑ A detector and electronic
circuitry to
change
optical signals into electrical signals.
receiver sensitivity:‑ The optical power
required by
a
receiver for low error signal transmission. In the case
of digital signal transmission, the mean optical power
is usually quoted in Watts or dBm (decibels referenced
to 1 milliwatt).
reflectance:- Same as return loss except a
negative
sign is
placed before the number in decibels (dB).
reflection:‑ The abrupt change in direction
of a
light beam
at an interface between two dissimilar media so that the
light beam returns into the media from which it originated.
refraction:‑ The bending of a beam of light
at an
interface
between two dissimilar media or in a medium whose refractive
index is a continuous function of position (graded index
medium).
repeater:‑ In a lightwave system, an
optoelectronic
device
or module that receives an optical signal, converts it to
electrical form, amplifies or reconstructs it, and retransmits
it in optical form.
responsivity:‑ The ratio of detector output
to input,
usually
measured in units of amperes per watt (or microamperes per
microwatt μA/μW).
return loss:- The optical power that is
reflected
back towards
the source of optical power by a connector. Return loss may
be expressed in absolute power units, such as microwatts, or
in decibels with reference to the incident optical power
input
to the connector. Thus return loss is the optical power
reflected,
rather than power that is transmitted, absorbed, scattered,
or
radiated. However, backscatter is included in the return
loss
measurement and should be considered when the actual return
loss is calculated. On fiber optic connector specification
sheets,
the higher return loss in dB, the better. (See reflectance)
singlemode fiber:‑ Optical fiber with a
small core
diameter
in which only a single mode, the fundamental mode, is
capable
of propagation. This type of fiber is particularly suitable for
wideband transmission over large distances, since its
bandwidth is limited only by chromatic dispersion.
superluminescent diodes (SLDs):‑
Superluminescent
diodes
(SLDs) are distinguished from both laser diodes and LEDs in
that the emitted light consists of amplified spontaneous
emission having a spectrum much narrower than that of LEDs
but wider than that of lasers.
source:‑ The means (usually LED or LASER)
used to
convert
an electrical information carrying signal into a corresponding
optical signal for transmission by an optical waveguide.
splice:‑ A permanent joint between two
optical
waveguides.
spontaneous emission:‑ This occurs when
there are too
many
electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor. These
electrons drop spontaneously into vacant locations in the
valence band, a photon being emitted for each electron. The
emitted light is incoherent.
star coupler:‑ An optical component used to
distribute light
signals to a multiplicity of output ports. Usually the
number
of input and output ports are identical.
step index fiber:‑ A fiber having a uniform
refractive index
within the core and a sharp decrease in refractive index at
the core/cladding interface.
stimulated emission:‑ This occurs when
photons in a
semi‑
conductor stimulate available excess charge carriers to the
emission of photons. The emitted light is identical in
wavelength, and phase with the incident coherent light.
T (or tee) coupler:‑ A coupler with three
ports.
threshold current:‑ The driving current
above the
ampli‑
fication of the lightwave in a laser diode becomes greater
than the optical losses, so that stimulated emission com‑
mences. The threshold current is strongly temperature
dependent.
total internal reflection (TIR):‑ The total
reflection that occurs
when light strikes an interface at angles of incidence greater
than the critical angle.
transmission loss:‑ Total loss encountered
in
transmission
through a system.
transmitter:‑ A driver and a source used to
change
electrical
signals into optical signals.
tree coupler:‑ An optical component used to
distribute light
signals to a multiplicity of output ports. Usually the
number
of output ports are greater than the number of input ports.
Y coupler:‑ A variation on the T coupler in
which
input light
is split between two channels (typically planar waveguide)
that branch out like a Y from the input.
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM):‑
Simultaneous
transmission of several signals in an optical waveguide at
differing wavelengths.